Writing Effectively

Suggestions on Writing:
          Accurately and Objectively
          Clearly and Coherently
          Simply and Economically
          Cohesively

Why it is Important to Write Well

It may be the only form of communication between two or more people.

Unclear writing may lead to misunderstanding by the reader.

Unclear writing reflects negatively on the writer and sometimes reflects foggy thinking.

Being able to write clearly strengthens the writer's self-esteem.

Basic Points To Remember About Writing

Writing is a transaction between the writer and the reader, with the primary obligation for conveying the message accurately and understandably being on the writer.

The spoken language is looser than the written language, as facial expression, gestures, pointing, etc. cannot be included in the written document.

Whatever the message, it can be transmitted to the reader via the written word, though much effort is required if complicated messages are conveyed clearly.

We seldom recognize how poorly we write, because we know what we intended to say and are likely to mistakenly believe that our written passage actually communicates that message.

A clear sentence is no accident, as so many little things can lead to misinterpretation.

Almost always, with more time and effort we could improve our writing, often---though not always---by reduction in wording.

Writing is a craft that can be improved, principally by observing carefully others' writing and by practicing one’s own writing.

The Biomedical Paper

Introduction: Supplies background and rationale for the investigation.
Materials and Methods: Provides enough detail that a competent researcher can repeat the investigation.
Results: Presents the data.
Discussion: Puts the findings in a larger context and shows the relationships among observed facts.
References and Footnotes: Directs the reader to the most relevant literature.
Abstract: Presents a summary of the study and findings.
Visual Illustrations: Illustrate the paper's content and/or depicts a situation that cannot be conveyed adequately with words alone.

Some Recommended Steps in Writing the Paper.

Identify the purpose(s) of the paper.

Decide when to write; that is, at what point in the research.

Consider the various rhetorical strategies that can be used (description, narration, process, example/illustration, comparison/contrast, definition, classification/division, cause-effect, analogy).

Allocate the information to the appropriate sections of the paper.

Write each section.

Do a paragraph by paragraph analysis within each section to make sure the message is presented clearly and logically.

Do a sentence by sentence analysis within each paragraph to make sure that each sentence contributes to the message and that the sentences are in the order that most clearly presents the message.

Characteristics of Effective Writing (including Biomedical Writing)

Accurate and objective: It is factual and uninfluenced by emotion or prejudice.

Clear and coherent. It can be understood and cannot be misunderstood.

Simple and economical. It says only what needs to be said.

Cohesive. It sticks together because every sentence and every word contributes to the central idea and not merely to each other.

Suggestions on Writing Accurately and Objectively:

Observe carefully and record and describe precisely.

Use correct grammar and punctuation.

Use adverbs cautiously. Guard against using too many and be careful about their location. For example: He is the only one I like///He is the one only I like.

Avoid excessive and inappropriate use of jargon and cliches.

Use value-laden and opinion words cautiously (e.g., surely, unquestionably).

Include contradictory evidence when appropriate.

Suggestions on Writing Clearly and Coherently

Omit no key words.
	Incorrect: The film container is your first step. Correct: Opening the film container is your first step.
Avoid ambiguity.
	Incorrect: Uncle John went to feed the cow with an umbrella.
Avoid overstuffing sentences.
	Incorrect: For non-smokers, a smoke filled room causes not only teary eyes and runny noses but also can alter auditory and visual perceptions as well, which is irritating but not associated with any serious disease, except for people with heart and lung ailments who are threatened with major problems from smoke.
Avoid multi-noun modifiers (noun strings).
	Incorrect: Diabetic patient blood pressure reduction may be a consequence of renal extract depressor agent application.
Place key words or phrases at either the beginning or the end of the sentence.
	Correct: I expect a refund because of your error in my laboratory test. Correct: Because of your error in my laboratory test, I expect a refund.
Use active voice (forceful verbs) when possible.
	Incorrect: Attempts were made on the part of the engineering staff in regard to an assessment of the project.

Suggestions on Writing Simply and Economically

Use uncomplicated sentences.
	Example 1: The strength that the elephant has is amazing. Example 2: The strength of the elephant is amazing. Example 3: The elephant's strength is amazing.
Avoid long introductory phrases.
	Example: For all intents and purposes, few women have yet achieved equal pay for equal work. Improvement: Few women have yet achieved equal pay for equal work.
Use plain words.
	Bad: The recent drug thefts have necessitated stronger security measures. Good: The recent drug thefts have made it necessary for stronger security measures.
Use numbers to indicate points.
	Example: Our present careless use of coal and oil will lead to a series of unpleasant events: (1) all of us will have to cut back drastically on our use of resources; (2) only the rich will be able to afford the resources; and (3) all access to the resources will end by the turn of the century because the resources will be depleted.
Do not qualify words that have only one meaning.
	Incorrect: Several positive benefits may result from this new innovation.
Avoid needless repetition.
	Incorrect: Breathing is restored by artificial respiration. Artificial respiration means that breathing is being maintained by artificial means. Techniques of artificial respiration are mouth-to-mouth and mouth-to-nose. Artificial respiration must always be performed when external cardiac massage is being done.
Use active voice when possible.
Be concise in word usage.
	Incorrect: On account of the fact that the fire had spread to two floors, all stairwells were sealed off. Correct: Because the fire had spread to two floors, all stairwells were sealed off.

Suggestions on Writing Cohesively

Clearly state the central idea (topic sentence).

Stick to the topic.

Leave out irrelevant details.

Organize sentences in a meaningful manner. Spatial (from one physical location to another); Chronological; Example (topic sentence supported by examples); Reasoning (viewpoint supported by reasons); Cause/effect; Effect/cause; Comparison/contrast

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